Analysis for Corruption Problem in the Closed Proportional Electoral System in Indonesia
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Published:
Dec 30, 2023
Keywords:
Closed Proportional Election, Political Oligarchy, Corruption, Weakening Democracy
Main Article Content
Abstract
This study discusses the dynamics of implementing a closed proportional system in elections in Indonesia and the various problems that arise from it. Some of the issues referred to are the practices of political oligarchy and corruption and their negative impact on the building of democracy in Indonesia. This research is a literature review conducted based on qualitative methods. Sources and types of data in this research use primary and secondary data. After analyzing field data based on the perspective of political sociology theory, this study found that the implementation of general elections in Indonesia using a closed proportional list system, as was the case in elections in the Old Order and New Order eras, has great potential to give rise to some weaknesses and shortcomings. Some of the most crucial are the potential for the emergence of political, oligarchic practices among political party elites, abuse of authority and power in the form of corruption and the like, and finally, the potential for weakening democratic buildings, both substantially and institutional structures. In its substantive aspect, the closed list election arrangement hurts public participation because voters cannot elect their representatives directly but through a representative mechanism, namely political parties. Meanwhile, in terms of the institutional structure, there is the potential for abuse of the function of political parties, especially the process of political recruitment, which tends to revolve around certain groups and groups only.
Article Details
How to Cite
Hannan, A., & Syarif, Z. (2023). Analysis for Corruption Problem in the Closed Proportional Electoral System in Indonesia. Jurnal Studi Sosial Dan Politik, 7(2), 224-239. https://doi.org/10.19109/jssp.v7i2.19448
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How to Cite
Hannan, A., & Syarif, Z. (2023). Analysis for Corruption Problem in the Closed Proportional Electoral System in Indonesia. Jurnal Studi Sosial Dan Politik, 7(2), 224-239. https://doi.org/10.19109/jssp.v7i2.19448
References
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Aminah, S., Apriani, T., Pranasari, M. A., Indarti, D. M., & Herlina, M. (2020). The High Political Costs in Local Head Election (Case Study in Indonesia). Clinical Medicine, 7(11).
Amrullah, A. (2023, January 8). Pengamat: Sistem Proporsional Tertutup Perkuat Oligarki, Hambat Partisipasi Politik. Retrieved 2 June 2023, from Republika Online website: https://republika.co.id/share/ro5t8a291
Anjalline, I., Anggraini, R. A. R., Indrayati, R., & Kalimantan, J. (2014). Electoral Campaign Fund Regulatory Responsibilities as a Member of Legislative Candidate By Law Number 8 in 2012 Election of Members of The House of Representatives, the House of Representatives and the House of Representatives. 12.
Argawati, U. (2023a, Mei). Pengalaman Pahit Penerapan Sistem Pemilu Proporsional Tertutup. Retrieved 2 June 2023, from Www.mkri.id website: https://www.mkri.id/index.php?page=web.Berita&id=19156&menu=2
Argawati, U. (2023b, March 8). Debates on Open-List Proportional Election System. Retrieved 14 June 2023, from En.mkri.id website: https://en.mkri.id/news/details/2023-03-08/Debates_on_Open-List_Proportional_Election_System
Argawati, U. (2023c, March 8). Pro-Kontra Sistem Pemilu Proporsional Terbuka. Retrieved 2 June 2023, from Www.mkri.id website: https://www.mkri.id/index.php?page=web.Berita&id=19011
Banducci, S. A., Donovan, T., & Karp, J. A. (1999). Proportional representation and attitudes about politics: Results from New Zealand1Authors’ names are listed in alphabetical order; authorship is equal.1. Electoral Studies, 18(4), 533–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(99)00019-0
Benedict R. O’G. Anderson. (1983). Old State, New Society: Indonesia’s New Order in Comparative Historical Perspective. The Journal of Asian Studies, 42(3), 477–496. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/2055514
Bochsler, D. (2023). Balancing District and Party Seats: The Arithmetic of Mixed-Member Proportional Electoral Systems. Electoral Studies, 81, 102557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2022.102557
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2023, May 28). Electoral system. Encyclopedia Britannicam. Retrieved 14 June 2023, from Https://www.britannica.com/ website: https://www.britannica.com/topic/electoral-system
Buisseret, P., Folke, O., Prato, C., & Rickne, J. (2022). Party Nomination Strategies in List Proportional Representation Systems. American Journal of Political Science, 66(3), 714–729. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12691
C. N. N., I. (2022, November 18). Gugat UU ke MK, Kader PDIP-NasDem Mau Pemilu Coblos Partai Bukan Caleg. Retrieved 2 June 2023, from Nasional website: https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20221117172138-12-875218/gugat-uu-ke-mk-kader-pdip-nasdem-mau-pemilu-coblos-partai-bukan-caleg
Carey, J. M., & Hix, S. (2011). The Electoral Sweet Spot: Low-Magnitude Proportional Electoral Systems. American Journal of Political Science, 55(2), 383–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00495.x
De Vries, C. E., & Solaz, H. (2017). The Electoral Consequences of Corruption. Annual Review of Political Science, 20(1), 391–408. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-052715-111917
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Series Eds.). (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. (pp. xii, 643). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.
Eric C. C. Chang, & Golden, M. A. (2007). Electoral Systems, District Magnitude and Corruption. British Journal of Political Science, 37(1), 115–137. JSTOR. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4497282
Espírito-Santo, A., & Sanches, E. R. (2018). Looking for Locals Under a Closed-List Proportional Representation System: The Case Of Portugal. Electoral Studies, 52, 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2018.01.004
Fitzgerald, S. E., & Telaumbanua, N. (2023). Comparison Analysis of Open and Closed Proportional Election Systems in the Perspective of State Law in Indonesia. Aurelia: Jurnal Penelitian Dan Pengabdian Masyarakat Indonesia, 2(2).
Fjelde, H. (2020). Political Party Strength and Electoral Violence. Journal of Peace Research, 57(1), 140–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343319885177
Hangartner, D., Ruiz, N. A., & Tukiainen, J. (2019). Open or Closed? How List Type Affects Electoral Performance, Candidate Selection, and Campaign Effort. VATT Institute for Economic Research Working Papers.
Hannan, A. (2022). Regulasi Dana Kampanye Kolektif untuk Pemilu yang Transparan Dana Berkeadilan Perspektif Sistem Proporsional Terbuka. Jurnal Partisipatoris, 4(1), 9–24. Retrieved from https://ejournal.umm.ac.id/index.php/jurnalpartisipatoris/article/view/19517
Hannan, A., & Busahwi, B. (2021). Problem Politik Kabinet Koalisi; Konflik Kepentingan Hingga Konflik Internal Partai Politik. KABILAH : Journal of Social Community, 6(2), 49–69. Retrieved from http://ejournal.kopertais4.or.id/madura/index.php/kabilah/article/view/5392
Hicks, J. (2022). Effect Of Closed List Proportional Representation On The Election Of Women And Youth. United Kingdoom: Institute of Development Studies.
Hix, S., Hortala-Vallve, R., & Riambau-Armet, G. (2017). The Effects of District Magnitude on Voting Behavior. The Journal of Politics, 79(1), 356–361. https://doi.org/10.1086/688889
Joseph, T. M. (2008). Mixed Member Proportional System as an Alternative to the Indian Electoral System. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 69(1), 183–190. JSTOR. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41856403
K.Denzin, N. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publication.
KEYMAN, E. F. (2010). The CHP and the ‘Democratic Opening’: Reactions to AK Party’s Electoral Hegemony. Insight Turkey, 12(2), 91–108. JSTOR. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/26331440
Kselman, D. M. (2020). Public goods equilibria under closed- and open-list proportional representation. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 32(1), 112–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0951629819895808
Kurnianingrum, R. I. (2020). Reconsidering the Closed Proportional System for Indonesia. JPPUMA Jurnal Ilmu Pemerintahan Dan Sosial Politik Universitas Medan Area, 8(2), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.31289/jppuma.v8i2.3563
Lefkofridi, Z., & Giger, N. (2020). Democracy or Oligarchy? Unequal Representation of Income Groups in European Institutions. Politics and Governance, 8(1), 19–27. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v8i1.2526
Liddle, R. W. (2000). Indonesia in 1999: Democracy Restored. Asian Survey, 40(1), 32–42. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/3021218
Monroe, B. L., & Rose, A. G. (2002). Electoral Systems and Unimagined Consequences: Partisan Effects of Districted Proportional Representation. American Journal of Political Science, 46(1), 67–89. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/3088415
Morissan. (2005). Hukum Tata Negara Era Reformasi. Jakarta: Ramdina Prakarsa.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary at. (n.d.). Election noun-Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes. Retrieved 7 June 2023, from OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com website: https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/election
Parker, D. C., & Richter, C. M. (2018). Back from Holyrood: How mixed-member proportional representation and ballot structure shape the personal vote. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 20(3), 674–692. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148118762279
Post, T. J. (2023, June 5). Our (in-)constitutional Court. Retrieved 14 June 2023, from The Jakarta Post website: https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2023/06/05/our-in-constitutional-court.html
Pratiwi, D. A. (2018). Sistem Pemilu Proporsional Daftar Terbuka di Indonesia: Melahirkan Korupsi Politik? Jurnal Trias Tripolitika, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.33373/jtp.v2i1.1235
Rahma, N. M. (2022). Review Buku sebuah Pembelajaran untuk Pemilu yang Akan Datang. Jurnal Penelitian Politik, 9(1).
Rais, A. M. S., Wahidin, S., Nurita, R. F., & Rifandhana, R. F. (2019). Analisis Asas Hukum Langsung, Umum, Bebas, Rahasia, Jujur, Adil dalam Pemilihan Umum Serentak Tahun 2019. 2(2).
Ramseyer, J. M., & Rosenbluth, F. M. (1995). The Politics of Oligarchy: Institutional Choice in Imperial Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Core. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174350
Rousseau, J.-J., & John Tozer, H. (1895). The Social Contract. London New Delhi: Swan Sonnenschein & Co.
Sarbaini. (2015). Demokratisasi dan Kebebasan Memilih Warga Negara dalam Pemilihan Umum. Jurnal Inovati, 8(1).
Stokes, S. C. (1999). Political Parties and Democracy. Annual Review of Political Science, 2(1), 243–267. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.243
Sugiyono. (2017). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta, CV.
Syafei, M., & Darajati, M. R. (2020). Design of General Election in Indonesia. Law Reeform, 16(1), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.14710/lr.v16i1.30308
Syarif, Z., & Hannan, A. (2020). Islamic Populism Politics and Its Threat to Indonesian Democracy. Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam, 20(2). Retrieved from https://jurnal.iainponorogo.ac.id/index.php/tahrir/article/view/2128
Tambunan, D. (2023). The Intervention of Oligarchy in the Indonesian Legislative Process. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, 20578911231159396. https://doi.org/10.1177/20578911231159395
Topan, A., & Hakim, A. (2023). The Role of Local Religious Figures (Kiai) in Strengthening Political Participation in Post- new Order Madura 1998-2019. NAHNU: Journal of Nahdlatul Ulama and Contemporary Islamic Studies, 1(1).
Uniwersytet Kazimierza Wielkiego w Bydgoszczy, & Kapsa, I. (2015). The weaknesses of majority voting systems. A voice in the discussion on the proposed changes in the Polish voting system. Świat Idei i Polityki, 14, 148–168. https://doi.org/10.15804/siip201509
Vedi R. Hadiz & Richard Robison. (2013). The Political Economy of Oligarchy and the Reorganization of Power in Indonesia. Indonesia, (96), 35–57. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.5728/indonesia.96.0033
Weale, A. (2013). Justice, social contracts, and democracy. In A. Weale (Ed.), Democratic Justice and the Social Contract (p. 0). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199684649.003.0001
Widayat, R. M., Nurmandi, A., Rosilawati, Y., Natshir, H., Syamsurrijal, M., & Baharuddin, T. (2022). Bibliometric Analysis and Visualization Articles on Presidential Election in Social Media. Presented at the 1st World Conference on Social and Humanities Research (W-SHARE 2021), Makassar, Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.220402.032
Williams, D. (2012). Rousseau’s Social Contract: An Introduction. 1–311. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139031219
Al-Hamdi, R., Sakir, S., & Lailam, T. (2021). Evaluating Closed-List Proportional Representation System and its Compatibility in Contemporary Indonesian Election.
Aminah, S., Apriani, T., Pranasari, M. A., Indarti, D. M., & Herlina, M. (2020). The High Political Costs in Local Head Election (Case Study in Indonesia). Clinical Medicine, 7(11).
Amrullah, A. (2023, January 8). Pengamat: Sistem Proporsional Tertutup Perkuat Oligarki, Hambat Partisipasi Politik. Retrieved 2 June 2023, from Republika Online website: https://republika.co.id/share/ro5t8a291
Anjalline, I., Anggraini, R. A. R., Indrayati, R., & Kalimantan, J. (2014). Electoral Campaign Fund Regulatory Responsibilities as a Member of Legislative Candidate By Law Number 8 in 2012 Election of Members of The House of Representatives, the House of Representatives and the House of Representatives. 12.
Argawati, U. (2023a, Mei). Pengalaman Pahit Penerapan Sistem Pemilu Proporsional Tertutup. Retrieved 2 June 2023, from Www.mkri.id website: https://www.mkri.id/index.php?page=web.Berita&id=19156&menu=2
Argawati, U. (2023b, March 8). Debates on Open-List Proportional Election System. Retrieved 14 June 2023, from En.mkri.id website: https://en.mkri.id/news/details/2023-03-08/Debates_on_Open-List_Proportional_Election_System
Argawati, U. (2023c, March 8). Pro-Kontra Sistem Pemilu Proporsional Terbuka. Retrieved 2 June 2023, from Www.mkri.id website: https://www.mkri.id/index.php?page=web.Berita&id=19011
Banducci, S. A., Donovan, T., & Karp, J. A. (1999). Proportional representation and attitudes about politics: Results from New Zealand1Authors’ names are listed in alphabetical order; authorship is equal.1. Electoral Studies, 18(4), 533–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(99)00019-0
Benedict R. O’G. Anderson. (1983). Old State, New Society: Indonesia’s New Order in Comparative Historical Perspective. The Journal of Asian Studies, 42(3), 477–496. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/2055514
Bochsler, D. (2023). Balancing District and Party Seats: The Arithmetic of Mixed-Member Proportional Electoral Systems. Electoral Studies, 81, 102557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2022.102557
Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia. (2023, May 28). Electoral system. Encyclopedia Britannicam. Retrieved 14 June 2023, from Https://www.britannica.com/ website: https://www.britannica.com/topic/electoral-system
Buisseret, P., Folke, O., Prato, C., & Rickne, J. (2022). Party Nomination Strategies in List Proportional Representation Systems. American Journal of Political Science, 66(3), 714–729. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12691
C. N. N., I. (2022, November 18). Gugat UU ke MK, Kader PDIP-NasDem Mau Pemilu Coblos Partai Bukan Caleg. Retrieved 2 June 2023, from Nasional website: https://www.cnnindonesia.com/nasional/20221117172138-12-875218/gugat-uu-ke-mk-kader-pdip-nasdem-mau-pemilu-coblos-partai-bukan-caleg
Carey, J. M., & Hix, S. (2011). The Electoral Sweet Spot: Low-Magnitude Proportional Electoral Systems. American Journal of Political Science, 55(2), 383–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00495.x
De Vries, C. E., & Solaz, H. (2017). The Electoral Consequences of Corruption. Annual Review of Political Science, 20(1), 391–408. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-052715-111917
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Series Eds.). (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. (pp. xii, 643). Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc.
Eric C. C. Chang, & Golden, M. A. (2007). Electoral Systems, District Magnitude and Corruption. British Journal of Political Science, 37(1), 115–137. JSTOR. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4497282
Espírito-Santo, A., & Sanches, E. R. (2018). Looking for Locals Under a Closed-List Proportional Representation System: The Case Of Portugal. Electoral Studies, 52, 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2018.01.004
Fitzgerald, S. E., & Telaumbanua, N. (2023). Comparison Analysis of Open and Closed Proportional Election Systems in the Perspective of State Law in Indonesia. Aurelia: Jurnal Penelitian Dan Pengabdian Masyarakat Indonesia, 2(2).
Fjelde, H. (2020). Political Party Strength and Electoral Violence. Journal of Peace Research, 57(1), 140–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343319885177
Hangartner, D., Ruiz, N. A., & Tukiainen, J. (2019). Open or Closed? How List Type Affects Electoral Performance, Candidate Selection, and Campaign Effort. VATT Institute for Economic Research Working Papers.
Hannan, A. (2022). Regulasi Dana Kampanye Kolektif untuk Pemilu yang Transparan Dana Berkeadilan Perspektif Sistem Proporsional Terbuka. Jurnal Partisipatoris, 4(1), 9–24. Retrieved from https://ejournal.umm.ac.id/index.php/jurnalpartisipatoris/article/view/19517
Hannan, A., & Busahwi, B. (2021). Problem Politik Kabinet Koalisi; Konflik Kepentingan Hingga Konflik Internal Partai Politik. KABILAH : Journal of Social Community, 6(2), 49–69. Retrieved from http://ejournal.kopertais4.or.id/madura/index.php/kabilah/article/view/5392
Hicks, J. (2022). Effect Of Closed List Proportional Representation On The Election Of Women And Youth. United Kingdoom: Institute of Development Studies.
Hix, S., Hortala-Vallve, R., & Riambau-Armet, G. (2017). The Effects of District Magnitude on Voting Behavior. The Journal of Politics, 79(1), 356–361. https://doi.org/10.1086/688889
Joseph, T. M. (2008). Mixed Member Proportional System as an Alternative to the Indian Electoral System. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 69(1), 183–190. JSTOR. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41856403
K.Denzin, N. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publication.
KEYMAN, E. F. (2010). The CHP and the ‘Democratic Opening’: Reactions to AK Party’s Electoral Hegemony. Insight Turkey, 12(2), 91–108. JSTOR. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/26331440
Kselman, D. M. (2020). Public goods equilibria under closed- and open-list proportional representation. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 32(1), 112–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0951629819895808
Kurnianingrum, R. I. (2020). Reconsidering the Closed Proportional System for Indonesia. JPPUMA Jurnal Ilmu Pemerintahan Dan Sosial Politik Universitas Medan Area, 8(2), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.31289/jppuma.v8i2.3563
Lefkofridi, Z., & Giger, N. (2020). Democracy or Oligarchy? Unequal Representation of Income Groups in European Institutions. Politics and Governance, 8(1), 19–27. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v8i1.2526
Liddle, R. W. (2000). Indonesia in 1999: Democracy Restored. Asian Survey, 40(1), 32–42. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/3021218
Monroe, B. L., & Rose, A. G. (2002). Electoral Systems and Unimagined Consequences: Partisan Effects of Districted Proportional Representation. American Journal of Political Science, 46(1), 67–89. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.2307/3088415
Morissan. (2005). Hukum Tata Negara Era Reformasi. Jakarta: Ramdina Prakarsa.
Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary at. (n.d.). Election noun-Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes. Retrieved 7 June 2023, from OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com website: https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/election
Parker, D. C., & Richter, C. M. (2018). Back from Holyrood: How mixed-member proportional representation and ballot structure shape the personal vote. The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 20(3), 674–692. https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148118762279
Post, T. J. (2023, June 5). Our (in-)constitutional Court. Retrieved 14 June 2023, from The Jakarta Post website: https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2023/06/05/our-in-constitutional-court.html
Pratiwi, D. A. (2018). Sistem Pemilu Proporsional Daftar Terbuka di Indonesia: Melahirkan Korupsi Politik? Jurnal Trias Tripolitika, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.33373/jtp.v2i1.1235
Rahma, N. M. (2022). Review Buku sebuah Pembelajaran untuk Pemilu yang Akan Datang. Jurnal Penelitian Politik, 9(1).
Rais, A. M. S., Wahidin, S., Nurita, R. F., & Rifandhana, R. F. (2019). Analisis Asas Hukum Langsung, Umum, Bebas, Rahasia, Jujur, Adil dalam Pemilihan Umum Serentak Tahun 2019. 2(2).
Ramseyer, J. M., & Rosenbluth, F. M. (1995). The Politics of Oligarchy: Institutional Choice in Imperial Japan. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Core. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174350
Rousseau, J.-J., & John Tozer, H. (1895). The Social Contract. London New Delhi: Swan Sonnenschein & Co.
Sarbaini. (2015). Demokratisasi dan Kebebasan Memilih Warga Negara dalam Pemilihan Umum. Jurnal Inovati, 8(1).
Stokes, S. C. (1999). Political Parties and Democracy. Annual Review of Political Science, 2(1), 243–267. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.243
Sugiyono. (2017). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, dan R&D. Bandung: Alfabeta, CV.
Syafei, M., & Darajati, M. R. (2020). Design of General Election in Indonesia. Law Reeform, 16(1), 97–111. https://doi.org/10.14710/lr.v16i1.30308
Syarif, Z., & Hannan, A. (2020). Islamic Populism Politics and Its Threat to Indonesian Democracy. Al-Tahrir: Jurnal Pemikiran Islam, 20(2). Retrieved from https://jurnal.iainponorogo.ac.id/index.php/tahrir/article/view/2128
Tambunan, D. (2023). The Intervention of Oligarchy in the Indonesian Legislative Process. Asian Journal of Comparative Politics, 20578911231159396. https://doi.org/10.1177/20578911231159395
Topan, A., & Hakim, A. (2023). The Role of Local Religious Figures (Kiai) in Strengthening Political Participation in Post- new Order Madura 1998-2019. NAHNU: Journal of Nahdlatul Ulama and Contemporary Islamic Studies, 1(1).
Uniwersytet Kazimierza Wielkiego w Bydgoszczy, & Kapsa, I. (2015). The weaknesses of majority voting systems. A voice in the discussion on the proposed changes in the Polish voting system. Świat Idei i Polityki, 14, 148–168. https://doi.org/10.15804/siip201509
Vedi R. Hadiz & Richard Robison. (2013). The Political Economy of Oligarchy and the Reorganization of Power in Indonesia. Indonesia, (96), 35–57. JSTOR. https://doi.org/10.5728/indonesia.96.0033
Weale, A. (2013). Justice, social contracts, and democracy. In A. Weale (Ed.), Democratic Justice and the Social Contract (p. 0). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199684649.003.0001
Widayat, R. M., Nurmandi, A., Rosilawati, Y., Natshir, H., Syamsurrijal, M., & Baharuddin, T. (2022). Bibliometric Analysis and Visualization Articles on Presidential Election in Social Media. Presented at the 1st World Conference on Social and Humanities Research (W-SHARE 2021), Makassar, Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.220402.032
Williams, D. (2012). Rousseau’s Social Contract: An Introduction. 1–311. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139031219