CONSERVATIVE IDEOLOGY OF INDONESIAN MUSLIMS: THE ROLE OF EPISTEMIC MOTIVATION, AUTHORITARIANISM AND ISLAMIC TOTALISM
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Published:
Jun 1, 2020
Keywords:
Need for Cognitive Closure, Right Wing Authoritarian, Islamic Totalism, Conservatism
Main Article Content
Abstract
This research proves that religiosity (Islamic totalism) is a predictor of conservative ideology, as is the need for cognitive closure and right wing authoritarian which has been proven as a psychological variable that affects conservative ideology. The ideology of conservatism emphasizes on the tendency to preserve what is already established, resist change and maintain existing orders whether social, economic, legal, religious, political, or cultural (Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, & Sulloway, 2003). This research utilized a quantitative survey method. Participants of this study were 528 college students from Jakarta with multiple regression analysis. The results obtained are 1) Islamic totalism, cognitive closure and right wing authoritarian are social and economic conservatism predictors; 2) only Islamic totalism is a religious conservatism predictor; 3) Islamic totalism has the greatest influence on social, economic and religious conservatives.
Article Details
How to Cite
CONSERVATIVE IDEOLOGY OF INDONESIAN MUSLIMS: THE ROLE OF EPISTEMIC MOTIVATION, AUTHORITARIANISM AND ISLAMIC TOTALISM. (2020). Psikis : Jurnal Psikologi Islami, 6(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.19109/psikis.v6i1.4983
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Articles June 2020
Psikis: Jurnal Psikologi Islami by http://jurnal.radenfatah.ac.id/index.php/psikis is licensed under a Lisensi Creative Commons Atribusi-BerbagiSerupa 4.0 Internasional.
How to Cite
CONSERVATIVE IDEOLOGY OF INDONESIAN MUSLIMS: THE ROLE OF EPISTEMIC MOTIVATION, AUTHORITARIANISM AND ISLAMIC TOTALISM. (2020). Psikis : Jurnal Psikologi Islami, 6(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.19109/psikis.v6i1.4983
References
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Altemeyer, B., & Hunsberger, B. (2004). The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion RESEARCH : A Revised Religious Fundamentalism Scale : The Short and Sweet of It A Revised Religious Fundamentalism Scale :
The Short and Sweet of It. (November 2014), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr1401
Altemyer and Hunsberger. (1992). Authoritarianism, religious and fundamentalism, Quest and Prejudice.
Arbuckle. G.A., 2016. Fundamentalism : An Enemy of the Common Good
Arndt, J., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T. (2015). Suppression , Accessibility of Death-Related Thoughts , and Cultural Worldview Defense : Exploring the Psychodynamics of Terror Management Suppression , Accessibility of Death-Related Thoughts , and Cultural Worldview Defense : Exploring the Psychodynamics of Terror Management. (October). https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.73.1.5
Brandt, M. J. and R. (2014). To Love or Hate Thy Neighbor : The Role of Authoritarianism and Traditionalism in Explaining the Link Between Fundamentalism and Racial Prejudice. 35(2), 207–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12077
Calogero, R. M., Bardi, A., & Sutton, R. M. (2009). A need basis for values : Associations between the need for cognitive closure and value priorities. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(2), 154–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.019
Chirumbolo, A. (2002). The relationship between need for cognitive closure and political orientation : the mediating role of authoritarianism. 32, 603–610.
Cohen, A. B., & Miller, D. T. (2012). The Association of Religiosity and Political Conservatism :33(2), 275–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00875.x
Converse, P. E. (2000). A c m e. (Converse 1990).
Crowson, H. M., & Thoma, S. J. (n.d.). The Journal of Social Is Political Conservatism Synonymous With Authoritarianism ? (November 2014), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.145.5.571-592
De Grada, E., Kruglanski, A. W., Mannetti, L., & Pierro, A. (1999). Motivated Cognition and Group Interaction: Need for Closure Affects the Contents and Processes of Collective Negotiations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(4), 346–365. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1999.1376
Duckitt, J. (2001). A Dual-process cognitive-motivation theory of ideology and prejudice. Advance in Experimental Social Psychology
Duckitt, J., & Sibley, C. G. (2009). A Dual-Process Motivational Model of Ideology , Politics , and Prejudice. 98–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028540
Duckitt, J., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). Personality , Ideology , Prejudice , and Politics : A Dual-Process Motivational Model. (December). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00672.x
Fealy, G., White, S. 2008. Expessing Islam :
Religious life and politics in Indonesia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies,
Feldman, S., & Johnston, C. (2014). Understanding the determinants of political ideology: Implications of structural complexity. Political Psychology, 35(3), 337–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12055
Freeden, M. 2003. Ideology A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press
Friesen, J. P., Campbell, T. H., Kay, A. C., Friesen, J. P., Campbell, T. H., & Kay, A. C. (2014). [Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol - - No - , p ----] Frisesen, Justin P. The Psychological Advantage of Unfalsifiability - The Appeal of Untestable Religious and Political Ideologies (2014 11 17).
Ginges, J., Hansen, I., Norenzayan, A., Ginges, J., Hansen, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2009). Religion and Support for Suicide Attacks. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02270.x
Glassman, M., & Karno, D. (2007). Ideology as instrument. American Psychologist, 62(9), 1075–1076. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.9.1075
Hardin, C. D., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Shared reality: How social verification makes the subjective objective. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition. Handbook of motivation and cognition, Vol. 3. The interpersonal context (p. 28–84). The Guilford Press.
Hennes, E. P., Nam, H. H., Stern, C., & Jost, J. T. (2012). Not all ideologies are created equal: Epistemic, existential, and relational needs PREDICT system-justifying attitudes. Social Cognition, 30(6), 669–688. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2012.30.6.669
Hill, P.C., Williamson, W.P., 2005. The Psychology of Religious Fundamentalism. New York. Guillford
Hunsberger, B., Pratt, M., Pancer, S. M., Hunsbergert, B., & Praltt, M. (1994). Religious Fundamentalism and Integrative Complexity of Thought : A Relationship for Existential Content Only ? Published by : Wiley on behalf of Society for the Scientific Study of Religion Stable URL : https://www.jstor.org/stable/1386493 Religious Funda. 33(4), 335–346.
Hunter, James D,.1991. Culture Wars : The Struggle to Devine America. New York: Basic Books
Jost, J. T. (2006). The end of the end of ideology. American Psychologist, 61(7), 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.651
Jost, J. T. (2009). Elective affinities: On the psychological bases of left-right differences. Psychological Inquiry, 20(2–3), 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028599
Jost, J. T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A. W., & Sulloway, F. J. (2003). Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129(3), 339–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.339
Jost, J. T., Hawkins, C. B., Nosek, B. A., Hennes, E. P., Stern, C., Gosling, S. D., & Graham, J. (2014). Belief in a Just God ( and a Just Society ): A System Justification Perspective on Religious Ideology. 34(1), 56–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033220
Jost, J. T., Napier, J. L., Thorisdottir, H., Gosling, S. D., Palfai, T. P., Ostafin, B., … Gosling, S. D. (2007). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Threat Associated With Political Conservatism or Ideological Extremity ? https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207301028
Jost, J. T., Nosek, B. A., & Gosling, S. D. (2008). Ideology: Its Resurgence in Social, Personality, and Political Psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(2), 126–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00070.x
Kay, A. C., Gaucher, D., Napier, J. L., Callan, M. J., & Laurin, K. (2008). God and the Government : Testing a Compensatory Control Mechanism for the Support of External Systems God and the Government : Testing a Compensatory Control Mechanism for the Support of External Systems. (May 2014). https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.18
Kelly, N. J. (2008). United States. 236–263.
Layman, et all, . (2005). Party Polarization and “ Conflict Extension ” in the United States : The Case of Party Activists
Geoffrey Layman University of Maryland Thomas Carsey John Green University of Akron Richard Herrera Arizona State University Prepared for delivery at the Annu.
Liddle, R. W., Mujani, S., & Liddle, R. W. (2013). Indonesia ’ s Approaching Elections POLITICS , ISLAM , AND PUBLIC OPINION. 15(1), 109–123. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2004.0006
Lifton. (1989). thought reform and the psychology of totalism.
Malka, A., Soto, C. J., Inzlicht, M., & Lelkes, Y. (2014). Do needs for security and certainty predict cultural and economic conservatism? A cross-national analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(6), 1031–1051. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036170
Mavor, K. I., Louis, W. R., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). Personality and Individual Differences, 48 (1), 28-33.48, 28–33.
Mavor, K. I., Macleod, C. J., Boal, M. J., & Louis, W. R. (2009). Right-wing authoritarianism , fundamentalism and prejudice revisited : Removing suppression and statistical artefact. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(5–6), 592–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.12.016
Mietzner, M., & Muhtadi, B. (2018). Explaining the 2016 Islamist Mobilisation in Indonesia: Religious Intolerance,
Militant Groups and the Politics of Accommodation. Asian Studies Review, 42(3), 479–497. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2018.1473335
Mujani, S.(2007). Muslim demokrat : Islam,
budaya demokrasi dan partisipasi politik di Indonesia pasca Orde Baru. Jakarta. Gramedia.
Muluk, H., Milla, M.N., Yustisia, W., Arifin H.H., Hudiyana, J., & Shadiqi, M.A.(2017). Re-conceptualizing Political Ideology: The construction of three dimensions scale of ideology in the Indonesian context. Unpublished manuscript
Oesterreich, D. (2005). Flight into Security : A New Approach and Measure. 26(2).
Passini, S. (2008). Exploring the Multidimensional Facets of Authoritarianism : Authoritarian Aggression and Social Dominance Orientation. (July). https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185.67.1.51
Reyna, C., Brandt, M. J., & Reyna, C. (2010). The Role of Prejudice and the Need for Closure in Religious Fundamentalism. (May). https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210366306
Roets, A., & Hiel, A. Van. (2011). Item selection and validation of a brief , 15-item version of the Need for Closure Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(1), 90–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.004
Sakai, M., & Fauzia, A. (n.d.). Islamic orientations in contemporary Indonesia : Islamism on the rise ? (November 2014), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631369.2013.784513
saraglou. (2010). Mental Health , Religion & Culture Beyond dogmatism : The need for closure as related to religion. (November 2014), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670210144130
Saroglou, V., Delpierre, V., & Dernelle, R. (2004). Values and religiosity : a meta-analysis of studies using Schwartz Õ s model. 37, 721–734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.10.005
Saroglou, V., Lamkaddem, B., Pachterbeke, M. Van, & Buxant, C. (2009). International Journal of Intercultural Relations Host society ’ s dislike of the Islamic veil : The role of subtle prejudice , values , and religion. 33, 419–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.02.005
Shepard, W. E. (1987). Islam and Ideology : Towards a Typology Author ( s ): William E . Shepard Source : International Journal of Middle East Studies , Vol . 19 , No . 3 ( Aug ., 1987 ), pp . 307- Published by : Cambridge University Press Stable URL : http://www.jstor.org/stab. 19(3), 307–335.
Stangor, C. (2011). Research methods for the behavioral sciences, 4th edition. USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Staub, E. (2005). HEALING , RECONCILIATION , FORGIVING AND THE PREVENTION OF VIOLENCE AFTER GENOCIDE OR MASS KILLING : AN INTERVENTION AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION IN RWANDA. 24(3), 297–334.
Todosijević, B. (2015). Ideology and politics : The role of national identification Ideology and politics : The role of national identification. (November). https://doi.org/10.3224/pcs.v5i2.20819
Very, I. A., & Introduction, S. (n.d.). No Title.
Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL Individual Differences in Need for Cognitive Closure. 67(6), 1049–1062.
Whitehead, A.L., Perry, S.L. (2019). Is a “Christian America” a More Patriarchal America? Religion, Politics, and Traditionalist Gender Ideology. The Canadian Review of Sociology
Woodberry, R. (2014). Fundamentalism Et Al : Conservative Protestants in FUNDAMENTALISM ET AL : Conservative
Protestants in America. (June), 24–56. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.25
Young, O. A., Willer, R., & Keltner, D. (2013). “ Thou Shalt Not Kill ”: Religious Fundamentalism , Conservatism , and Rule-Based Moral Processing. 5(2), 110–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032262
Altemeyer, B., & Hunsberger, B. (2004). The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion RESEARCH : A Revised Religious Fundamentalism Scale : The Short and Sweet of It A Revised Religious Fundamentalism Scale :
The Short and Sweet of It. (November 2014), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr1401
Altemyer and Hunsberger. (1992). Authoritarianism, religious and fundamentalism, Quest and Prejudice.
Arbuckle. G.A., 2016. Fundamentalism : An Enemy of the Common Good
Arndt, J., Greenberg, J., Solomon, S., & Pyszczynski, T. (2015). Suppression , Accessibility of Death-Related Thoughts , and Cultural Worldview Defense : Exploring the Psychodynamics of Terror Management Suppression , Accessibility of Death-Related Thoughts , and Cultural Worldview Defense : Exploring the Psychodynamics of Terror Management. (October). https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.73.1.5
Brandt, M. J. and R. (2014). To Love or Hate Thy Neighbor : The Role of Authoritarianism and Traditionalism in Explaining the Link Between Fundamentalism and Racial Prejudice. 35(2), 207–224. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12077
Calogero, R. M., Bardi, A., & Sutton, R. M. (2009). A need basis for values : Associations between the need for cognitive closure and value priorities. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(2), 154–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.09.019
Chirumbolo, A. (2002). The relationship between need for cognitive closure and political orientation : the mediating role of authoritarianism. 32, 603–610.
Cohen, A. B., & Miller, D. T. (2012). The Association of Religiosity and Political Conservatism :33(2), 275–299. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00875.x
Converse, P. E. (2000). A c m e. (Converse 1990).
Crowson, H. M., & Thoma, S. J. (n.d.). The Journal of Social Is Political Conservatism Synonymous With Authoritarianism ? (November 2014), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.145.5.571-592
De Grada, E., Kruglanski, A. W., Mannetti, L., & Pierro, A. (1999). Motivated Cognition and Group Interaction: Need for Closure Affects the Contents and Processes of Collective Negotiations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(4), 346–365. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1999.1376
Duckitt, J. (2001). A Dual-process cognitive-motivation theory of ideology and prejudice. Advance in Experimental Social Psychology
Duckitt, J., & Sibley, C. G. (2009). A Dual-Process Motivational Model of Ideology , Politics , and Prejudice. 98–109. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028540
Duckitt, J., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). Personality , Ideology , Prejudice , and Politics : A Dual-Process Motivational Model. (December). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00672.x
Fealy, G., White, S. 2008. Expessing Islam :
Religious life and politics in Indonesia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies,
Feldman, S., & Johnston, C. (2014). Understanding the determinants of political ideology: Implications of structural complexity. Political Psychology, 35(3), 337–358. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12055
Freeden, M. 2003. Ideology A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press
Friesen, J. P., Campbell, T. H., Kay, A. C., Friesen, J. P., Campbell, T. H., & Kay, A. C. (2014). [Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol - - No - , p ----] Frisesen, Justin P. The Psychological Advantage of Unfalsifiability - The Appeal of Untestable Religious and Political Ideologies (2014 11 17).
Ginges, J., Hansen, I., Norenzayan, A., Ginges, J., Hansen, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2009). Religion and Support for Suicide Attacks. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02270.x
Glassman, M., & Karno, D. (2007). Ideology as instrument. American Psychologist, 62(9), 1075–1076. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.9.1075
Hardin, C. D., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Shared reality: How social verification makes the subjective objective. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition. Handbook of motivation and cognition, Vol. 3. The interpersonal context (p. 28–84). The Guilford Press.
Hennes, E. P., Nam, H. H., Stern, C., & Jost, J. T. (2012). Not all ideologies are created equal: Epistemic, existential, and relational needs PREDICT system-justifying attitudes. Social Cognition, 30(6), 669–688. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2012.30.6.669
Hill, P.C., Williamson, W.P., 2005. The Psychology of Religious Fundamentalism. New York. Guillford
Hunsberger, B., Pratt, M., Pancer, S. M., Hunsbergert, B., & Praltt, M. (1994). Religious Fundamentalism and Integrative Complexity of Thought : A Relationship for Existential Content Only ? Published by : Wiley on behalf of Society for the Scientific Study of Religion Stable URL : https://www.jstor.org/stable/1386493 Religious Funda. 33(4), 335–346.
Hunter, James D,.1991. Culture Wars : The Struggle to Devine America. New York: Basic Books
Jost, J. T. (2006). The end of the end of ideology. American Psychologist, 61(7), 651–670. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.651
Jost, J. T. (2009). Elective affinities: On the psychological bases of left-right differences. Psychological Inquiry, 20(2–3), 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028599
Jost, J. T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A. W., & Sulloway, F. J. (2003). Political Conservatism as Motivated Social Cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129(3), 339–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.339
Jost, J. T., Hawkins, C. B., Nosek, B. A., Hennes, E. P., Stern, C., Gosling, S. D., & Graham, J. (2014). Belief in a Just God ( and a Just Society ): A System Justification Perspective on Religious Ideology. 34(1), 56–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033220
Jost, J. T., Napier, J. L., Thorisdottir, H., Gosling, S. D., Palfai, T. P., Ostafin, B., … Gosling, S. D. (2007). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin Threat Associated With Political Conservatism or Ideological Extremity ? https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207301028
Jost, J. T., Nosek, B. A., & Gosling, S. D. (2008). Ideology: Its Resurgence in Social, Personality, and Political Psychology. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3(2), 126–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00070.x
Kay, A. C., Gaucher, D., Napier, J. L., Callan, M. J., & Laurin, K. (2008). God and the Government : Testing a Compensatory Control Mechanism for the Support of External Systems God and the Government : Testing a Compensatory Control Mechanism for the Support of External Systems. (May 2014). https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.18
Kelly, N. J. (2008). United States. 236–263.
Layman, et all, . (2005). Party Polarization and “ Conflict Extension ” in the United States : The Case of Party Activists
Geoffrey Layman University of Maryland Thomas Carsey John Green University of Akron Richard Herrera Arizona State University Prepared for delivery at the Annu.
Liddle, R. W., Mujani, S., & Liddle, R. W. (2013). Indonesia ’ s Approaching Elections POLITICS , ISLAM , AND PUBLIC OPINION. 15(1), 109–123. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2004.0006
Lifton. (1989). thought reform and the psychology of totalism.
Malka, A., Soto, C. J., Inzlicht, M., & Lelkes, Y. (2014). Do needs for security and certainty predict cultural and economic conservatism? A cross-national analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(6), 1031–1051. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036170
Mavor, K. I., Louis, W. R., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). Personality and Individual Differences, 48 (1), 28-33.48, 28–33.
Mavor, K. I., Macleod, C. J., Boal, M. J., & Louis, W. R. (2009). Right-wing authoritarianism , fundamentalism and prejudice revisited : Removing suppression and statistical artefact. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(5–6), 592–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.12.016
Mietzner, M., & Muhtadi, B. (2018). Explaining the 2016 Islamist Mobilisation in Indonesia: Religious Intolerance,
Militant Groups and the Politics of Accommodation. Asian Studies Review, 42(3), 479–497. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357823.2018.1473335
Mujani, S.(2007). Muslim demokrat : Islam,
budaya demokrasi dan partisipasi politik di Indonesia pasca Orde Baru. Jakarta. Gramedia.
Muluk, H., Milla, M.N., Yustisia, W., Arifin H.H., Hudiyana, J., & Shadiqi, M.A.(2017). Re-conceptualizing Political Ideology: The construction of three dimensions scale of ideology in the Indonesian context. Unpublished manuscript
Oesterreich, D. (2005). Flight into Security : A New Approach and Measure. 26(2).
Passini, S. (2008). Exploring the Multidimensional Facets of Authoritarianism : Authoritarian Aggression and Social Dominance Orientation. (July). https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185.67.1.51
Reyna, C., Brandt, M. J., & Reyna, C. (2010). The Role of Prejudice and the Need for Closure in Religious Fundamentalism. (May). https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210366306
Roets, A., & Hiel, A. Van. (2011). Item selection and validation of a brief , 15-item version of the Need for Closure Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(1), 90–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.004
Sakai, M., & Fauzia, A. (n.d.). Islamic orientations in contemporary Indonesia : Islamism on the rise ? (November 2014), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631369.2013.784513
saraglou. (2010). Mental Health , Religion & Culture Beyond dogmatism : The need for closure as related to religion. (November 2014), 37–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670210144130
Saroglou, V., Delpierre, V., & Dernelle, R. (2004). Values and religiosity : a meta-analysis of studies using Schwartz Õ s model. 37, 721–734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.10.005
Saroglou, V., Lamkaddem, B., Pachterbeke, M. Van, & Buxant, C. (2009). International Journal of Intercultural Relations Host society ’ s dislike of the Islamic veil : The role of subtle prejudice , values , and religion. 33, 419–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.02.005
Shepard, W. E. (1987). Islam and Ideology : Towards a Typology Author ( s ): William E . Shepard Source : International Journal of Middle East Studies , Vol . 19 , No . 3 ( Aug ., 1987 ), pp . 307- Published by : Cambridge University Press Stable URL : http://www.jstor.org/stab. 19(3), 307–335.
Stangor, C. (2011). Research methods for the behavioral sciences, 4th edition. USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Staub, E. (2005). HEALING , RECONCILIATION , FORGIVING AND THE PREVENTION OF VIOLENCE AFTER GENOCIDE OR MASS KILLING : AN INTERVENTION AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION IN RWANDA. 24(3), 297–334.
Todosijević, B. (2015). Ideology and politics : The role of national identification Ideology and politics : The role of national identification. (November). https://doi.org/10.3224/pcs.v5i2.20819
Very, I. A., & Introduction, S. (n.d.). No Title.
Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL Individual Differences in Need for Cognitive Closure. 67(6), 1049–1062.
Whitehead, A.L., Perry, S.L. (2019). Is a “Christian America” a More Patriarchal America? Religion, Politics, and Traditionalist Gender Ideology. The Canadian Review of Sociology
Woodberry, R. (2014). Fundamentalism Et Al : Conservative Protestants in FUNDAMENTALISM ET AL : Conservative
Protestants in America. (June), 24–56. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.24.1.25
Young, O. A., Willer, R., & Keltner, D. (2013). “ Thou Shalt Not Kill ”: Religious Fundamentalism , Conservatism , and Rule-Based Moral Processing. 5(2), 110–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032262